The cardinal features of inflammation are:.

It is not the authors' intention to give a detailed discussion of those tobacco-related systemic diseases that may have an indirect impact on the delivery of oral surgery. It is evident, however,...

Antigens (immunogens) are substances, usually proteins, that can be recognized by the body as foreign and can elicit an antibody response. Antigens are usually exogenous but may be endogenous...

Antibodies are produced by activated B-lymphocytes (plasma cells) and react specifically with the antigen that stimulated their production; they make up approximately 20% of the plasma proteins....

Cytokines are produced by many cell populations, but the predominant producers are helper T-cells (Th) and macrophages. Some cytokines (eg type 1 interferons [IFN] and tumour necrosis factor [TNF])...

Numbering of each component of the classical pathway of complement is from C1–C9. The sequence in which complement components are activated is C1, C4, C2, C3 and C5–C9 (since C4 was identified before,...

This man suffered from secondary syphilis confirmed by the presence clinically of asymptomatic atypical ulcerations in his mouth and groins together with lymphadenopathy and his highly positive...

Antigen presenting cells are a heterogeneous group of immune cells that mediate the cellular immune response by processing and presenting antigens for recognition by T-cells. APCs are either:.

The effluent organisms from DUWLs essentially originate from the biofilms on the luminal surface of the water line. Biofilms are defined as an organized community of microbes attached to a biotic or...

The main cells that mediate adaptive immunity are white blood cells (leukocytes) termed immunocytes – mainly lymphocytes:.

This skin rash was an allergic drug reaction to penicillin. This is a very common side-effect and appears within 5–6 days of drug uptake and ranges from mild to life-threatening. This is a body...

Innate defences include basic mechanisms resisting infections; predominantly including:.

Traumatic haematoma inflicted by her alcoholic husband is the likely diagnosis. Older patients have fragile skin vessels which bleed easily with minor trauma and form petechiae or large ecchymoses on...

The main primary organs of the immune system are lymphoid – the thymus and bone marrow (Figure 2) and secondary tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, skin and liver...